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The seedling produces a pronounced tap root which remains relatively short and is fairly quickly replaced by two or three primary sinkers which develop from it. During the first year, a mass of fibrous roots spread out from the tap root to a depth of about 25 cm and a radius of 36-50 cm.

During the second year, the primary sinkers descend a further 50 cm or so and several fibrous roots of the surface plate thicken to become the main horizontal laterals. These extend in subsequent years and may reach a radius of 10 m or so. They become greatly thickened, while a number of slender secondary sinkers develop from them to a depth of 7 m or so. The roots of neighbouring trees overlap and natural grafting may occur. The surface plate of roots extends to a radius of approximately the same distance as the height of the tree.

The trunk, up to 30 cm in diameter, is composed of very hard wood. It often forks near the base into two or three main erect branches, a habit which is sometimes simulated by planting two or three seedlings close together. The bark is grey and rough, and the slash on a healthy tree is white to rose-pink in colour. The wood of a tree which has died from natural causes is ash-grey; that of a tree which has died from sudden death is yellow; an infection from die-back gives a reddish-brown discoloration. The smaller branches and twigs, which are very brittle, are ascending, terete, smooth and greyish-white in colour.

Bagged inflorescences in Zanzibar never produced any viable seeds. Nair et al. (1974) state that the male phase starts with the opening of the flower, and the stamens are shed after two days, soon after which the female phase begins. They say that inbreeding is common in the clove and that controlled crossbreeding is possible. Maximum receptivity was found to be on the fifth clay after opening of the flower.

The stamens are very numerous, appearing grouped in four masses, arising from between the outer edges of the rather prominent narrow disc and the style. The filaments are nearly white and glandular-pustulate, the longest outer ones reaching 9-10 mm in length and the inner ones about 3 mm long.

The anthers are pale yellow, ovate, opening longitudinally, with a small, pale brown, inconspicuous connective gland. The style is very stout, swollen at the base, pale green, gland-dotted, and about 3-4 mm long. The stamens fall soon after the flowers open. The two-celled, multi-ovulate, inferior ovary is embedded in the top of the hypanthium.

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According to Rosengarten (1969), custom records show that cloves were imported into Alexandria by A.D. 176. The Emperor Constantine is said to have presented St Silvester, Bishop of Rome, A.D. 314-35, with numerous vessels of gold and silver, incense, and spices, including 150 pounds of cloves. By the fourth century cloves were well known round the Mediterranean and by the eighth century throughout Europe.

The Dutch, using repugnant, oppressive and often bloody measures, were to retain the monopoly for nearly another 200 years. By 1651 the Dutch had instituted a scheme limiting the cultivation of cloves to the island of Amboina, insisting on the uprooting of cloves on the other islands. The penalty for the possession, selling and cultivation of cloves except on Amboina was death.

The orders were particularly cruel, as it was the custom in the Moluccas for the indigenous people to plant a clove tree for the birth of each child, which helped to keep a record of the child’s age; if the tree was subsequently destroyed it portended doom for the child. The Dutch aimed to create an artificial scarcity and maintained prices by destroying surplus cloves which came onto the market. They made Batavia (Djakarta) the entrepot for cloves. Rutnphius (1626-1702) gives a very accurate account of the clove tree and method of production in his Herbarium Amboinense.

As early as 1753 and 1755 Pierre Poivre obtained nutmegs and cloves from the Moluccas and Timor for Mauritius, then known as Ile de France. They do not seem to have been successful, largely due to opposition from Fusee-Aublet, the botanist in Mauritius. Ly-Tio-Fane (1958) gives a fascinating account of Poivre’s efforts to introduce these spices to Mauritius and their subsequent distribution elsewhere. In 1767 Poivre became Intendant of the island and arranged to send Provost to the Moluccas to collect plants.

The Countess of Leicester in England in 1265 records that she paid 10-12 shillings per pound for them. During the later Crusades, Venice was dealing in cloves, along with other spices, and was becoming tremendously wealthy. Marco Polo, in the book of his travels from 1271 to 1297, dictated in 1298, recalls the plantings of cloves which he had seen on East Indian islands in the China Sea. It was the search for the Spice Islands which was largely responsible for Columbus sailing west in an attempt to discover them, but in which he found the West Indies instead. It was this same search which lead Vasco da Gama to go round the Cape of Good Hope to India. Both Vasco da Gama in 1498 and Cabral in 1500 obtained cloves in Calicut, India, which must have been taken there from the Moluccas.

By 1514 the Portuguese had occupied the Moluccas and controlled the lucrative trade in cloves and nutmegs, which became a monopoly of the royal house of Portugal. This, however, did not prevent Sebastian del Cano in the Victoria, the only surviving captain and ship of Magellan’s venture to circumnavigate the world, returning to Spain in 1522 with sufficient spices, including 26 tonnes of cloves, which more than paid for the cost of the entire expedition. He was rewarded with a pension and a coat of arms which included twelve cloves, three nutmegs and two sticks of cinnamon. Sir Francis Drake obtained cloves during the second circumnavigation of the world, 1577-80, but had to lighten his ship by throwing three tons of cloves and other articles overboard to refloat the Golden Hind when it went aground in the Celebes.

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Out of doors nicotine can be used to control aphis and thrips, but would appear to be more reliable, used either in spray or dust form, as it is effective at much lower temperatures than nicotine, as well as being rather more lasting in effect. Alternatives are derris, which does not appear to be very effective, and the phosphorus group insecticides. Most of the phosphorus group, although extremely effective against a wide range of pests, are dangerous to use, and protective clothing and masks must be used.

They have not true stomachs, so that they inject a little of their digestive juices into the plant sap, together with the virus, and suck hack the pre-digested sap, greatly to their advantage, but also greatly to the dahlia’s detriment.

Attack by aphides is usually marked by twisted and distorted foliage, so that if these symptoms are seen investigate the under surfaces of the leaves: it is almost certain that a small colony will be present.

Thrips usually attack the upper surfaces of the leaf, causing this to appear pin pricked with light patches, but will also attack developing buds and fully developed florets, causing discoloration of the florets and malformation generally. Control should be practised from the very first, from the time when the dahlias are set up for sprouting till the time when the plants are cut down ready for lifting.

In the greenhouse the nicotine fumigants are still the best control, provided the temperature is over Go F, and the house is reasonably air tight. At lower temperatures it is best to use B.H.C. either in spray form or as a smoke fumigant. Aerosols are also effective, using a type recommended for the control of aphis and thrips but, as with the smokes, a reasonably air tight greenhouse is required.

These should be diluted in accordance with the maker’s instructions and the affected areas watered well with the dilute solution. A most effective measure, but a little expensive if a large number of plants are grown.

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The common clone now grown in the Lampongs in southern Sumatra is ‘Belantung’ with large leaves and small fhiits; it shows some field resistance to foot rot; it is said to have taken over from `Djambi’ as the latter was very susceptible to foot rot in the Lampongs around 1930.

`Bangka’, for which a synonym seems to be ‘Muntok’, resembles the Sarawak `Sarikei’ and was the main clone for the production of white pepper by the Chinese on the island of Bangka.`Phnom-Pon’ is a large-leaved cultivar in Kampuchea (Cambodia); `Kamchay’ is a small-leaved cultivar there.

`Balamcotta’ has strong, vigorous growth; the leaves are large and light green in colour; the spikes are long and straight and are loosely packed with pale-green fruits; the flowers are bisexual; it has a reputation in India for high and regular yields. `Kalluvalli’ is said to be hardy, regular bearing, and drought- and wilt- resistant; the leaves are narrower and dark green in color; the flowers are bisexual; the spikes are long.

Hermaphrodite pepper flowers are protogynous, the stigmas being exserted 3-8 days before the dehiscence of the anthers. In Puerto Rico, stigmas may be receptive for up to 10 days with peak receptivity 3 to 5 days after exsertion. Flowering begins at the base of the spike and continues towards the tip over a period of 7 to 8 days.

It was found that bagged in florescences produced fruits, showing that the hermaphrodite cultivars `Balamcotta’ and `Kalluvalli’ are self-fertile and that self- pollination can occur without the action of rain or wind. The pollen is in glutinous masses of several to many grains; light rain breaks up the mass and the grains are caught in the papillae of the stigma, thus increasing the efficiency of pollen distribution.

The Indonesian cultivar `Bangka; was included in the trial, but died before the end of the experiment; it had yielded 14 990 lb of green berries per acre (16 800 kg per ha) per annum. The Indian cultivars and ‘Belantung’ showed some resistance to foot rot and are being used as rootstocks for the purpose of bud-grafting.

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Cortinarius armillatus is a neat-looking species and easily recognized at first sight. Its relatively sturdy fruit-bodies have a brick-red or reddish, rusty brown cap, with yellow, later cinnamon brown gills and a brown, club-shaped stipc, decorated with vermilion red broken stripes, which are remnants of the cortina. Its flesh lacks any specific taste or smell.

Stropharia aeruginosa is a strikingly coloured species; it has a verdigris-green, later ochre-coloured cap, which is covered with a slimy layer and in young black-brown. specimens is flecked with white scales. Its green to green-blue stipe is also slimy, covered with white “scales and showing a collar-like ring at its apex.

Fortunately, it can be easily distinguished from other purple edible gill fungi. Pluteus cervinus is one of the most common red- spore mushrooms which grow on stumps and rotting wood. Its relatively large fruit-bodies have a light to dark greY or greyish-brown cap, surmounting a thin, white stipe which is longitudinally streaked with thin dark fibrils. The gills arc prominent and stand free from the stipe.

At first they are white but then turn to a pale pink and later a fleshy red, when their spores ripen. Their margins are not different in colour from the rest of the gills, as opposed to the closely related Platens atromarginatus, whose gill edges have black margins.

While Platens cervinus prefers the wood of deciduous trees, especially the stumps of birch trees, hornbeams, oaks and beeches, Pluteus atromarginatus grows exclusively on the wood of coniferous trees, most often on pines and spruces. However, it is not as abundant as Platens cervinus.

The fruit-bodies of numerous species classified in this group cover a wide range of colour pigmentation, especially yellow and red, which influences the overall colouring. Some species are in fact a vivid red or orange. One of these is Cortinarius cinnabarinus.

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Incidentally I do hope that it has been made clear that, when referring to tubers, the actual fleshy root portion is meant, not the crown or stem, and that each dahlia plant will produce a group or clump of tubers. It is unfortunate that the gardener invariably refers to the whole clump (which consists of stem, crown and a group of tubers) as a dahlia tuber-the chance of confusion the whole, as for example, in the chrysanthemum, where the term “stool” is used to signify the whole plant after lifting.

To make the most of limited space indoors the boxes can be stacked on top of each other, but a wide air gap must be left between each to allow air to circulate over the stems and crown. This is usually quite easily contrived by nailing stout pieces of wood upright at each of the four corners, the next box to be placed into position resting on these. Old house bricks can be used for the same purpose, but the structure will not be so secure. In old houses the cellar will often prove an ideal spot for storing the tubers, as the temperature in such places seldom varies much and is almost invariably over freezing point. Air raid shelters can provide an ideal place also, with certain precautions against damp and cold.

It should be made at least once a month, more often if this is possible, to ascertain the state of the tubers. Particular attention should be paid to the stump of the stem as this is so often the point at which disease commences whilst in store.

If any tubers have been attacked, which is often indicated by a white or brown mould on the affected stem or tuber, the affected area should be carefully pared away until clean white flesh is reached. If the stem is the affected part, the rot may have extended down into the crown so that, when cutting away the rotten part of the stem, the outer tissue of the crown should be examined, as the rot is often confined to this layer of tissue at first; a thin black line just under the outer skin is the only evidence of rot in the early stages. But when paring away affected areas on the crown, do take great care, as it is so easy to render the tuber blind while carrying out this operation; on the other hand if the rot is allowed to develop unchecked, the tuber will be valueless anyway.

One very important point must not be overlooked-labelling. The label may well become detached when trimming affected plants: remember to replace it firmly with thin wire!

Detected in time, the onset of rot may be checked by very light trimming, whereas if allowed to develop unchecked for any lengthy period a major operation may be necessary, with all the possible dangers of such extensive surgery.

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Viruses are usually transmitted by insect vectors, and by no other method in nature, although some authorities consider it possible that the virus may be carried on the propagator’s knife, or when cutting flowers, but there is insufficient evidence to prove this true. The balance of opinion tends to consider that infection by this method is extremely improbable. There are three types of virus infection to which the dahlia is prone, namely spotted wilt (sometimes called tomato spotted wilt), dahlia mosaic and cucumber mosaic.

Apart from this preventive action, if any plants show strong signs of possible virus infection, particularly if dwarfed, do not hesitate, but pull the whole plant up and burn it straight away. It may seem a great shame, yet the one plant may infect every other dahlia in the garden, and completely ruin many plants in the following year.

If it does get into the cutting beds, then remove the damaged plants to prevent it spreading throughout the bed and increase the ventilation. Out of doors other bacterial and fungoid diseases may affect the dahlia. Two of them, fortunately extremely rarely seen, cause the comparatively quick collapse of the dahlia, usually at ground level.

The young shoots will usually show signs of virus infection if present, and the whole tuber should be destroyed straight away, because every cutting will carry the virus. It is said that if a shoot from a tuber infected with spotted wilt virus is grown very quickly, the tip may outgrow the virus infected tissue, so that a clean stock could be obtained by removing and striking the tip. However, this appears to apply to one virus alone, and even then to entail a procedure which is most difficult of accomplishment.

Formaldehyde is toxic to plant growth, so that it will not be possible to replace the affected dahlia by another plant, as it takes approximately six weeks for the chemical to be washed out of the ground.

Virus should be suspected if the leaves show signs of mottling or crinkling, or if certain plants appear less vigorous compared with others of the same variety. If leaf symptoms are very well pronounced and any plants are definitely dwarfed, then it is almost certain that these are infected by one or other of the viruses; probably by a combination of more than one.

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Paxillus involutus is one of the most abundant mushrooms. Its cap is viscid in the centre and woolly at the edges and in colour is almost identical to its short stipe. The yellowish flesh has a slightly bitter taste and smell. If it is bruised the whole fruit-body turns a rust colour and later brown.

Paxillus involuins grows in a variety of woods, is especially prolific under birch trees, but also under isolated trees in lanes and parkland from valleys right up to high mountain slopes. This mushroom used to be considered edible, was regularly cropped and used in cooking. However, it has now been shown that Paxillus involutus is in fact poisonous. Particularly when eaten repeatedly it leads to the formation of antidotes in the human body. These have an adverse effect on the body in the long run and can cause allergies and the wastage of red blood cells.

The pinkish colouring of the tubes is related to the pink colour of the spore powder. It is as a result of this feature that the Tylopilus genus was established and Tylopilus is one of its members. The species is slightly poisonous. It often grows in large numbers in damp coniferous forests and on the slopes of mountains. It may also be found around the rotten stumps of spruce trees. Finally it prefers an acid, non- calcareous soil.

There are not many other mushrooms as common as the Honey fungus. In September its clusters usually cover the stumps, roots and bases of live or dying deciduous or coniferous trees. Less frequently it occurs as early as June. It is a dangerous parasite which damages fruit trees as well as many woodland species. When tree trunks are attacked, they become covered with white sheets of mycelia or with multi-branched ribbons of this fungus, which are brown or black on the surface and white inside and which penetrate the bark and base of the tree.

The Honey fungus is a popular, edible species in some regions and is found in large quantities. Its young fruit-bodies are collected whole, but in older specimens only the caps can be used. It is one of the best mushrooms for pickling in vinegar and can also be added to soups and sauces or fried. However, raw or inadequately cooked fruit-bodies can cause indigestion.

Inexperienced mushroom-pickers sometimes confuse the Honey fungus with Pholiota squarrosa, which grows in similar habitats. Fortunately it is not poisonous, but tough and indigestible. This mushroom can be easily recognized by its sharp scales, the scaly ring on its stipe and its rusty brown spore powder.

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In dry weather they may come to no harm, but should the weather turn cold and wet there is a grave danger that the various fungi and bacteria lurking in the soil will attack the stem below ground level, perhaps entering through lesions caused by wireworm or other soil pests, or through tissue which has served its main purpose and is gradually dying.

One of the most unsatisfactory statements ever made was to the effect “that the colour should be typical of the variety”. It is unsatisfactory inasmuch as it meant that if a variety was of a poor or indeterminate colour, its merits had to he judged on a condition which in itself was not desirable. In all other characteristics judges do not make much allowance for inherent faults in the particular variety, so that it does not appear to be logical to choose a different basis for judging colour.

This is not such an easy question to answer as so many points will affect the issue. If the plants have been grown for garden display, particularly if they were raised from divided tubers, there is no urgency unless it is more convenient to clear the ground. The plants may well be allowed to continue blooming until the frost does finally settle the problem for another year.

Liberator is a more meritorious achievement than a 12 in. Croydon Masterpiece, as it requires considerable skill to grow the former bloom to 2 in. whereas a 12 in. Masterpiece is a commonplace. Depth of bloom and form must also be taken into account. A shallow bloom, even if of great diameter, is not so meritorious as a somewhat smaller bloom of much greater depth. Size must not be associated with lack of form, or coarseness, or it will be faulted.

It must be stressed that a dahlia tuber should never be lifted until it has become “ripe”. That is, it has taken up and absorbed sufficient starches and sugars in a stable form suitable for storage throughout the resting period.

This ripeness is usually evidenced by the tiring of the plant; the blooms become poor coloured, generally tending to become daisy eyed, and the production of buds begins to slow clown considerably; the whole plant appears to desire to rest after its labours, even though, like a willing horse, it will continue to struggle along for several more weeks.

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Even on lifting there are two schools of thought; some say that a fork is best on light soils, and a spade on heavy, whereas others advocate using a spade whatever the soil.

A spade, if used carelessly, may cut through tubers which a fork would miss, but there is much less chance of breaking tubers as the whole weight will be supported on the blade. If a fork is used, some part of the tuber may resist lifting, as the finer roots have not been removed, and severe damage may be caused by the uneven pressure.

A strong pair of secateurs should be used for cutting through the stems, using a tenon saw for plants with very thick stems. If the weather is dry, and particularly if the summer has been a good one, hot and dry for a great deal of the time, then it is usually advised that the tubers should be left in the ground for a week or ten days after cutting down.

The theory is that the dormant eyes are encouraged to develop to a certain degree, not sufficient to start into active growth but enough to ensure that they do not dry out completely during the storage period, or become covered by a deep layer of corky tissue that they will find difficult if not impossible to penetrate in the spring. It is also assumed to assist in ripening the tubers.

Though it is difficult to prove that these theories are right it certainly does no harm in dry weather. If the tubers are left in the ground, the cut down haulm should be heaped over the stump to act as a frost guard.

Should the weather be wet, there seems no advantage in leaving the tubers in the ground. It will be much more likely to he harmful as the stumps will be particularly vulnerable to soil borne bacterial or fungoid attack in wet, cold soil. It is much better to lift immediately after cutting down. The tubers will have already plumped up, and will be in good condition for lifting.

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